Preface

Since the last edition of this book, undoubtedly the most important event affecting the law of evidence has been the coming into force of the Criminal Justice Act 2003. This event necessitated the revision of the chapters.

In this edition, I have discussed the impact of the European Convention jurisprudence on the principles of the law of evidence and used the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 as a paradigm and the Canadian Charter of Rights and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1982 as an interrogatory source. View of great textwriters such as Best, Cross, Domaska, Gilbert, Penke, Stephen, Taylor, Thayer, Twining and Wigmore are cited to illuminate the discourses on key concepts and rules of evidence; and comments have been kept to the minimum.

I have incorporated a staggering mass of recent British and Strasbourg cases into the text. I have also seized the opportunity to assess critically causes célèbres such as In re McE (statutes overriding legal professional privilege – the iniquitous exception); R v Highton, Van Nguyen and Carp (bad character); R v Dunlop and R v Miell (reopening of final acquittal); Saadi v Italy (UK intervening) (prohibition of torture, degrading and inhuman treatment and punishment [Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention)]); and S and Marper v United Kingdom (retention of DNA samples etc. and violation of Article 8 of the Convention).

In view of its brevity and wealth of details, the book is suitable for legal practitioners, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and those on vocational courses such as ILEX, LPC and BVC.

Thanks to Mr. Michael Semple Piggot for his valued cooperation. Many thanks to Mrs Sue Wiseman for using her word-processing skills to type the manuscript within a short space of time.

On the basis of materials available to me I have stated the law as at 31 st August 2009.

The book is dedicated to Diane.

Solomon E. Salako

Liverpool

September 2009

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Table of contents

The page numbers refer to the printed book which is not available online.

Preface

 

Table of Cases ....................................................... x

 

Table of Statutes ................................................. xlii

 

List of Abbreviations .......................................... xlix .......

 

Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................... 1

(1) .. W hat is the Law of Evidence? ...................................... 1

(2) .. A rrangement of Chapters ............................................ 4

 

Chapter 2: Preliminaries ........................................ 5

(1) .. The Meaning of Evidence ............................................. 5

(2) .. Classification of Evidence ............................................ 6

(3)Sources of the Law of Evidence ...................................... 8

(4) .. Facts in Issue ........................................................... 10

(A) .. I n general ........................................................ 10

(B) .. M eans of Proof ................................................. 11

(5) .. Relevance, Admissibility and Weight of Evidence ......... 13

(A) .. In general ........................................................ 13

(B) .. Relevance and admissibility: A summary ............ 15

(C) .. Cogency or weight of evidence

....... or probative force ............................................. 15

(6) .. The Functions of the Judge and Jury ........................... 15

(A) .. Questions of law and fact .................................. 16

(B) .. Special cases .................................................... 16

(C) .. Exceptions ....................................................... 17

(7) .. Judicial Control of the Jury ........................................ 17

(A) .. Introduction ..................................................... 17

(B) .. Withdrawal of an issue ...................................... 17

(C) .. Stopping a case ................................................ 18

(D) .. Summing up ..................................................... 18

(E) .. Judicial discretion ............................................. 19

 

Chapter 3: The Burden and Standard of Proof ........ 20

(1) .. Burden of Proof: The Two Burdens ............................. 20

(2) .. B urden of Proof in Civil Cases .................................... 21

(A) .. The right to begin .............................................. 21

(B) .. The burden of proof .......................................... 21

(3) .. Burden of Proof in Criminal Cases .............................. 22

(4) .. The Human Rights Act 1998 and

....... the Burden of Proof .................................................. 29

(5) .. Standards of Proof ................................................... 36

(A) .. Criminal cases .................................................. 36

(B) .. Civil cases ........................................................ 37

(C) .. The third standard ............................................ 38

 

Chapter 4: Proof Of Facts Without Evidence .......... 40

(1) .. Introduction ............................................................. 40

( 2) .. Presumptions ........................................................... 40

(A) .. In general ........................................................ 40

(B) .. Particular presumptions .................................... 40

(C) .. Irrebuttable and rebuttable presumptions .......... 42

(3) .. Judicial Notice .......................................................... 43

(A) .. Introduction ..................................................... 43

(B) .. Legal matters ................................................... 43

(C) .. Constitutional matters ....................................... 45

(D) .. Professional practice ........................................ 46

(E) .. Historical facts ................................................. 46

(F) ... Other facts ....................................................... 46

( 4) .. Formal Admissions .................................................... 47

 

Chapter 5: The Evidential Significance of Earlier

Judicial Findings and Estoppels ........... 48

(1) .. The Rule in Hollington v Hewthorn .............................. 48

(2) .. Previous Convictions in Subsequent

....... Civil Proceedings ...................................................... 48

(A) .. In general ........................................................ 48

(B) .. Findings of adultery and paternity ..................... 49

(C) .. Libel or slander ................................................. 50

(3) .. Previous Convictions in Criminal Cases ....................... 50

(4) .. Estoppel ................................................................... 52

(A) .. Introduction ..................................................... 52

(B) .. Issue and cause of action estoppels ................... 53

(i) ... General rule ............................................... 53

(ii) .. Finality ...................................................... 53

(iii) .. Identity of parties ...................................... 54

(iv) .. Same capacity ........................................... 55

(iv) .. Same issues ............................................... 55

(C) .. Matrimonial causes ........................................... 56

(D) .. The situations in criminal cases:

....... Autrefois acquit and autrefois convict ................ 56

(E) .. Issue Estoppel in Criminal Cases ........................ 58

(F) ... Reopening a tainted acquittal ............................. 59

(G) .. Reopening a final acquittal under

....... sections 75-81 of the CJA 2003 ........................... 60

(H) .. Estoppel by deed .............................................. 63

(I) ... Estoppel by conduct .......................................... 63

(J) ... Estoppel by agreement ..................................... 64

(K) .. Estoppel by representation ................................ 64

(L) ... Estoppel by negligence ...................................... 64

 

Chapter 6: Competence and Compellability ........... 66

(1) .. A Historical Excursus ................................................ 66

(2) .. Mo des of Ascertaining Competence ............................ 67

(A) .. General rule ..................................................... 67

(B) .. Mentally handicapped persons ........................... 68

(C) .. Deaf and dumb persons ..................................... 69

(D) .. Infants ............................................................. 69

(E) .. The accused and his co-accused ......................... 73

(F) ... Spouse and ex-spouse ....................................... 74

(i) ... Competence of spouse ................................ 74

(ii) .. Compellability of the spouse ........................ 74

(iii) .. Ex-spouse .................................................. 74

(G) .. Sovereigns and diplomats .................................. 76

(H) .. B ankers ........................................................... 76

(3) .. Oaths and Affirmation ............................................... 76

 

Chapter 7: Corroboration ...................................... 78

(1) .. A Plurality of Witnesses ............................................ 78

(2) .. The Legal Meaning of Corroboration ........................... 78

(3) .. Two Essential Requirements of

....... Corroborative Evidence ............................................. 79

(4) .. Statutes Requiring Two or More Witnesses ................. 87

(5) .. Rules of Practice ...................................................... 71

(A) .. Accomplices and sexual offenders ..................... 81

(i) ... What is an accomplice? ............................... 81

(ii) .. Corroboration and the CJPOA 1994 .............. 82

(iii) .. Corroboration and similar facts ................... 86

(B) . Claims against estate of deceased persons ......... 87

(C) .. Other possible causes ....................................... 87

(6) .. Can Lies in Court Constitute Corroboration? ................ 87

 

Chapter 8: The Privilege Against Self-incrimination

and the right to silence ....................... 91

(1) .. The Adversary Rationale ........................................... 91

(2) .. The Privilege Against Self-incrimination ...................... 92

(A) .. Civil proceedings ............................................... 92

(B) .. Search order (formerly known as Anton

....... Piller order) ..................................................... 93

(C) .. Fraud cases ...................................................... 94

(3) .. The Right to Silence .................................................. 98

(A) .. At common law ................................................. 98

(B) .. Criminal Justice and Public Order

....... Act 1994, s.34 ................................................... 99

(C) .. Criminal Justice and Public Order

....... Act 1994, s.35 ................................................. 103

(D) .. Criminal Justice and Public Order Act

....... 1994, ss.36 and 37 .......................................... 104

(E) .. The right to silence in Canadian courts .............. 105

(F) ... The right to silence in Australian courts ............ 106

(4) .. Summary and Conclusion ......................................... 107

 

Chapter 9: Evidence of Identity ........................... 110

(1) .. The Problem of Mistaken Identity and the

...... Turnbull Guidelines .................................................. 100

(A) .. R v Turnbull .................................................... 110

(B) .. Withdrawing the case from the jury ................. 111

(2) .. Means of Identifying the Accused ............................. 112

(A) .. Introduction ................................................... 112

(B) .. Visual identification (or recognition?) ............... 112

(C) .. Identification in court ...................................... 113

(D) .. Identification out of court ................................ 114

(i) ... Introduction ............................................. 114

(ii) .. Identification at a confrontation ................ 114

(iii) . Group identification .................................. 115

(iv) .. Identification parade ................................ 115

(v) .. Is it mandatory to hold an identification

....... parade if the defendant demands it? .......... 115

(E) .. Video film identification ................................... 118

(F) ... The use of photographs ................................... 119

(G) .. Photofits and sketches .................................... 119

(H) .. Other forms of identification ............................ 120

(i) ... Fingerprints, footmarks or similar body

....... impressions and incriminating articles ....... 120

(ii) .. Possession of incriminating articles ........... 121

(iii) .. Similar facts ............................................. 122

(iv) .. Video identification ................................... 122

(v) .. Tracker dogs ............................................ 123

 

Chapter 10: Public Policy and Privilege ............... 124

(1) .. Introduction ........................................................... 124

(2) .. Pu blic Interest Immunity Categorised ...................... 125

(A) .. National security ............................................. 125

(B) .. Local government ........................................... 128

(C) .. Police matters ................................................ 129

(i) ... Informers ................................................ 129

(ii) .. Disclosure of documents and

....... relevant materials ................................... 129

(D) .. Confidential matters ........................................ 133

(3) .. Privilege ................................................................. 136

(A) .. Legal professional privilege ............................. 136

(i) ... In general ................................................ 136

(ii) .. Documents prepared in anticipation

....... of litigation .............................................. 137

(iii) .. Document passing between lawyer and client

....... (European Communities/Union) ................ 139

(iv) .. Items subject to privilege ......................... 139

(v) Statute overriding legal professional

..................... privilege: the iniquitous exception .............. 143

(vi) .. Once privileged always privileged .............. 140

(B) .. Communication with other persons

....... who are not lawyers ....................................... 141

(i) ... Journalists ............................................... 141

(ii) .. Bankers ................................................... 142

(iii) .. Accountants ............................................. 144

(iv) .. Priests and penitents ................................ 145

(v) .. Physicians and patients ............................ 145

(vi) .. Licensed conveyancers ............................. 146

(4) .. Statements made without prejudice ......................... 146

(A) .. In general ...................................................... 146

(B) .. Husband and wife ........................................... 146

 

 

Chapter 11: The Course of Evidence:

Examination-in-chief,

Cross-examination and

Re-examination ................................ 148

(1) .. The Right to Begin ................................................... 148

(2) .. E xamination-in-chief ............................................... 148

(A) .. Introduction ................................................... 148

(B) .. Leading questions ........................................... 148

(C) .. Refreshment of memory in court ..................... 149

(i) ... General rule ............................................. 149

(ii) .. Conditions ................................................ 149

(D) .. Out-of-court refreshment of memory ............... 150

( E) .. Use of documents to refresh memory

....... under section 139 of the CJA 2003 .................... 151

(F) ... Previous consistent statement ......................... 151

(G) .. Discrediting one's own witness:

....... unfavourable and hostile witnesses .................. 152

(i) ... Common law ............................................ 152

(ii) .. Unfavourable witness ............................... 152

(iii) .. Hostile witness ......................................... 152

(iv) .. Statutory provisions ................................. 152

(3) .. Cross-examination .................................................. 153

(A) .. Introduction ................................................... 153

(B) .. Previous inconsistent statements ..................... 153

(C) .. Civil cases ....................................................... 153

(D) .. Cross-examination as to credit ......................... 153

(i) ... Finality on collateral matters ..................... 153

(ii) .. Distinction between relevant and

....... collateral matters ..................................... 154

(E) .. Sexual history evidence ................................... 154

(F) ... False-memory ................................................ 157

(G) .. Exceptions to the rule on finality ...................... 159

(4) .. Re-examination ...................................................... 160

 

 

Chapter 12: Evidence of Character ...................... 161

(1) .. Pre-CJA 2003 .......................................................... 161

(2) .. Evidence of bad character: section 98 to 113

....... of the CJA 2003 ....................................................... 163

(3) .. Similar Facts in Civil Proceedings .............................. 171

 

Chapter 13: The Hearsay Rule ............................. 174

(1) .. The Genesis of the Hearsay Rule .............................. 174

(2) .. The Scope of the Rule .............................................. 175

(A) .. Introduction ................................................... 175

(B) .. Oral assertions ............................................... 175

(C) .. Writing ........................................................... 176

(D) .. Tapes, videotapes, microfilm/microfiche and computer printouts 177

(E) .. Conduct and signs ........................................... 177

(3) .. Hearsay in Civil Proceedings .................................... 177

(A) .. The Civil Evidence Act 1995 .............................. 177

(B) .. Hearsay ......................................................... 178

(C) .. Previous statements by and

....... cross-examination of witnesses ....................... 181

(D) .. Business, computerised and other records ....... 182

(E) .. Common law exceptions to the hearsay rule ..... 183

(F) ... Ogden tables .................................................. 184

(G) .. Miscellaneous provisions ................................. 185

(4) Hearsay in Criminal Proceedings ............................. 185

(A) .. Old law ........................................................... 185

(B) .. New law ......................................................... 186

 

 

Chapter 14: Opinion Evidence ............................. 207

( 1) .. General Rule and Rationale ...................................... 207

(2) .. Expert Opinion ........................................................ 208

(3) .. Expert Witnesses and Ultimate Issues ..................... 211

(4) .. Expert Witnesses and Foreign Law ........................... 214

(a) .. Common law ................................................... 214

(b) .. Civil Evidence Act 1972, ss.3 and 4 .................... 215

(5) .. Non-Expert Opinion ................................................. 216

 

 

Chapter 15: Illegally Obtained Evidence and

.................. Confessions .................................... 217

(1) .. The Law before PACE 1984 ...................................... 217

(2) .. PACE 1984 .............................................................. 219

(A) .. Introduction ................................................... 219

(B) .. Confessions that are obtained by oppressive means or are unreliable 219

(i) ... Discretion to exclude evidence obtained

....... by oppression .......................................... 219

(ii) .. Oppression .............................................. 219

(iii) .. Unreliability ............................................. 222

(C) .. Confessions by mentally

....... handicapped persons ...................................... 223

(D) .. Entrapment .................................................... 225

(i) ... Introduction ............................................. 225

(ii) .. The use of tricks or ruse by the police ........ 226

(iii) .. Secretly-taped conversations .................... 227

 

 

Index ................................................................. 236